Urban sprawl into Natura 2000 network over Europe

Urban growth is a major threat to biodiversity conservation at the global scale. Its impacts are expected be especially detrimental when it sprawls into landscape and reaches sites of high value due species ecosystems they host, such as protected areas. I analyzed degree urbanization (i.e., urban cover rate) from 2006 2015 in Natura 2000 network, which, according Habitats Birds Directives, harbor habitats concern Europe. used data on land imperviousness COPERNICUS calculate compare covers rates inside outside 2000. also relationships with set characteristics sites. was 10 times lower than (0.4% vs. 4%) throughout European Union. However, were slightly higher (4.8% 3.9%), which indicates an incipient sprawl network. In general, affected most by those surrounded densely populated areas clusters) that had low number or concern, albeit some member states rate both large value. Small more sites, but highest against extent, there room for improvement. Member must enact stricter legal protection control law enforcement halt under greatest pressure close clusters). Such actions particularly needed where affecting small value, vulnerable concentrated Mediterranean region. Expansión Urbana dentro de la Red en Europa El crecimiento urbano es una amenaza importante para conservación biodiversidad escala global. Se espera que los impactos este sean especialmente perjudiciales cuando se expande por el paisaje y alcanza sitios alto valor las especies ecosistemas albergan, como lo son áreas protegidas. Analicé grado urbanización (cobertura urbana tasa crecimiento) entre protegidos red 2000, cual, acuerdo con Directivas Aves Hábitats, alberga hábitats interés Europa. Usé información sobre impermeabilidad del suelo tomados calcular comparar coberturas urbanas tasas fuera También analicé relaciones cobertura un conjunto características Natura. La fue diez veces más baja afuera largo Unión Europea. Sin embargo, fueron ligeramente altas 3.8%), cual indica expansión incipiente red. En afectados aquellos rodeados densamente pobladas (es decir, conglomerados urbanos) tenían número bajo o conservación, aunque algunos estados miembros UE tuvieron alta ambas elevado conservación. Los pequeños mayor grandes, pero grandes. está protegida contra hasta cierto punto, todavía puede mejorar mucho más. deben promulgar protección estricta controlar aplicación ley detener hacia protegidas cercanas urbanos. Dichas acciones necesarias extensa donde afectando espacios cuales vulnerables encuentran concentrados región mediterránea. expansion key component land-use change severely threatens ecosystem worldwide (Sala et al. 2000; Grimm 2008; IPBES 2019). Global over last 3 decades has considerably exceeded forecasts necessary sustain world population (80% 52%) (Liu 2020). As human demand settlements infrastructures continues climb, increasingly goes beyond consolidated their surroundings, results (EEA 2016). New urbanized have mostly replaced agricultural (70%), followed grasslands forests (12% 9%, respectively) Although sustained areas, natural seminatural drives changes assemblages result biotic homogenization (McKinney 2002, 2006; Aronson 2014; Sorte 2014). Most studies still focus particular towns metropolitan whereas replacement artificial land) likely damaging been little explored (but see, e.g., Meynard 2011; Concepción 2015, 2016, 2017). Results these few available shown relates native specialist common generalist species, many them non-native thus Accordingly, event takes place ecosystems, its harmful. Union largest network world. main objective effective traditional uses. It conceived safeguard valuable threatened Europe, Directives (Council 79/409/EEC 92/43/EEC, respectively), through designation coherent priority territory 2012). guarantee appropriate regulation management uses included EU territories (Martínez-Fernández 2015; Simeonova implementation should accompanied development suitable measures, controls, financial instruments (Hermoso 2017, 2018a, 2018b, Maintaining delicate equilibrium between compatible relevant timely now frame 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals, goal 15 (“Protect, restore promote sustainable use terrestrial […] reverse degradation loss”) new Biodiversity Strategy launched part Green Deal (https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/strategy/index_en.htm). This strategy includes ambitious nature restoration plan aimed improving condition existing (up 30% sea) current loss 2030. involves reducing pressures ensuring supporting recovery by, among other methods, limiting impervious surface area sprawl. others report tend undergo less land-cover 20% kind change, related either naturalization (land abandonment) anthropization (agricultural intensification urbanization) (Kallimanis Martínez-Fernández Hermoso 2018a; Anderson & Mammides The actual magnitude probably greater because may unnoticed categorical size Natural comparison spatial resolution 100 x m best cases, based CORINE Land Cover) result, despite increasing countryside 2016) relevance conservation, lack awareness this protected-area (PA) conducted comprehensive analysis relative unprotected (20 × 20 m) 2015. considered whether differ versus what associated levels urbanization, patterns vary time across states. Gathering information first step evaluation measures taken ongoing PAs determining pay attention provide Copernicus Pan-European High Resolution Layers sealed soil) different years (harmonized 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015) (https://land.copernicus.eu/pan-european/high-resolution-layers/imperviousness) intersected distribution 28 (https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/natura-10/natura-2000-spatial-data/natura-2000-shapefile-1) using ArcGIS (ESRI 2018) (Fig. 1). Then, proportion proportional increase respect initial cover) calculated each year doing so, incorporation state site accounted accurately considering only officially network). Bulgaria Romania joined 1 January 2007 2015.Croatia July 2013 To linear mixed-effects models run (Bates 2015). Dependent variables (transformed arcsine square root) (log transformed) (2006, period (2006–2009, 2009–2012, 2012–2015 growth). random factor models, (inside outside) fixed factors. total explanatory variable analyses generalized unbalanced (18% 82%, respectively, whole Union). evaluate specific individual states, means models. factor, together following sites: type (protected Directive, both), transformed), (normalized accounting present corrected [details below]), amount settled sites’ surroundings. interactions rest predictors test varying After proving significance parameters, separate performed state. All models’ residuals graphically mixed-model assumptions residuals’ normal distribution, independence, homoscedasticity). clusters defined Eurostat-GEOSTAT contiguous (1-km2 grid) least 5000 inhabitants density ?300 inhabitants/km2, respectively (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/gisco/geodata/reference-data/population-distribution-demography/geostat). Overall within 25-km radius around centroids beginning (2006) potential driver estimate site, site. Environment Agency. Annex listed Article 4 (1 2) Directive II Directive. important Annexes IV V national lists, Bern Convention Conservation Wildlife Habitats, Bonn Migratory Species Wild Animals, endemic specified states). Both normalized effect hosted sites). Specifically, range 0 1: , i subsequently (also ranging 1): . estimated case two estimates habitats) directives so not underestimate any values Statistical R (R Core Team, 2019) packages lme4 2015), lmerTest (Kuznetsova 2017), visreg (Breheny Burchett Overall, covered 18% (1,218,641 km2) came 25,791 (22,243 862,169 km2 24,391 1,078,839 2009; 24,900 1,128,296 2012) Slovenia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Greece, Spain, Luxembourg 2). lowest United Kingdom, Denmark, Latvia, Lithuania, Sweden, Belgium, France. mixed model testing differences showed 10-fold entire (4% 0.4%; F1, 87.65 = 413.15, p < 2.2e-16) [detailed Appendix S1]). Malta, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany overall 3). remained moderate, Netherlands Germany, Belgium secondarily Malta amounts Portugal, Austria, Czechia, Slovenia Finland, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland top right), all bottom right). however, 3.9%; 80.52 3.92, 0.051) increased 2009 2012 slowed down (F2, 128.79 25.79, 3.794e-10). occurred Kingdom 4). recorded These (higher) (lower) except Poland, Latvia varied significantly year, type, area, surroundings). addition significant predictors) (Table Ireland, Lithuania. Romania, Spain. Detailed given S2. Croatia. 2013, considered. lessened deceleration began 2006–2009 growth. tended (Belgium, Spain). No pattern found Union, although Hungary ones level; general applied Italy, contrast, area) 5). states: France, Sweden. Spain), covers. growth, relationship level. Nonetheless, (Cyprus, Malta) value; Czechia opposite value). areas) 1) clusters. study evinces already Europe consequence building cores periurban compared level reached 3), 3.9% states) Furthermore, even though after (after peak crisis) 4), economic land. ought phenomenon western (Belgium Netherlands), central (Luxembourg, Poland), southern (Portugal, Cyprus). proximity confirmed areas; (urban rates) larger majority accordance previous show mainly contrasting patterns: abandonment steep remote accessible (e.g., Kallimanis highlight that, besides plans viability maintenance otherwise will abandoned converted profitable requires collaboration coordination administrations involved environmental management, local (Simeonova no Directives. fact require prior official PA. implemented effective, 41% (WWF slight would explain types Moreover, reveal capacity framework PAs. evinced (2015), who nationally designated upper-level protection). increases Spain 1987 2006. effectively halted integrated regulation, plans, subsequent controls plans' enforcement. is, contained relation habitats). Malta. Firmer vigilance cases mandatory, smaller undergone 2018a). before 2006–2015 building. Special paid rates, vulnerability. special basin one 25 hotspots, substantial habitat linked anthropic (Myers seems certain degree, completely. identified people reside recreate closer Stricter observance adequate put place, involved, ensure preservation spread built effort avoiding further PAs, subject highly areas). More urgent (Bulgaria) (Spain, Malta). latter diverse region, concentrates worthy protection, vulnerability degradation. am recipient Juan Cierva - Incorporación postdoctoral fellowship (IJCI-2016-30964) Spanish Ministry Science Innovation. wholeheartedly thank L. Barrios statistical advice, three anonymous reviewers editors detailed review comments suggestions enhanced manuscript. Please note: publisher responsible content functionality supplied authors. Any queries (other missing content) directed corresponding author article.